Well, you asked for it, so here it is. I hope there is enough room here.
Basic Punctuation Rules and Help
Since proper punctuation is an essential part of successful communication, remembering basic punctuation rules will make it easier for you to write clearly and effectively.
Punctuation Must Be Parallel
When punctuation is parallel, this means that interrupting a main clause with a dash or a comma requires using the same punctuation at the beginning and end of the clause.
Incorrect: The teenagers, students from Mrs. Smith's art class - went on a field trip to the museum. Correct: The teenagers, students from Mrs. Smith's art class, went on a field trip to the museum. Also correct: The teenagers - students from Mrs. Smith's art class - went on a field trip to the museum.
This rule also means that you may not use a semicolon to set off just one item in a list.
Incorrect: I have lived in Des Moines, Iowa, Seattle, Washington; and Boise, Idaho. Correct: I have lived in Des Moines, Iowa; Seattle, Washington; and Boise, Idaho.
A Dash is a Strong Comma
Essentially, a dash is used for many of the same purposes as a comma. However, since it is more emphatic then a comma, a dash should only be used to add extra emphasis to an important piece of information.
A dash can be used to draw attention to the last item in a list.
For his birthday, Mark received a sweater, a jacket, a savings bond - and a new bike!
A dash can also be used to set off an initial position free modifier that begins with the word "these."
Pizza, chocolate, and ice cream - these are my favourite foods.
A Colon (:)Appears at the End of a Completed Main Clause
If you have trouble deciding when to use a colon in your writing, it helps to ask yourself if a period or question mark would be appropriate in the same location. If the sentence is already complete, you may use a colon to add a list, elaboration, or restatement.
List: I have three brothers: David, Kent, and Jacob.
Elaboration: I have decided not to move to San Francisco: I have been offered a job in Milwaukee.
Restatement: Jenny couldn't decide who was to blame for yesterday's fight: She couldn't decide whether to blame herself or her best friend Annie for the argument.
A Semicolon (;) is used for Equal Emphasis
In a compound sentence that has no coordinating conjunction, a semicolon joins related independent clauses that are of equal importance.
Sarah answered my question abruptly(hastily); she seemed preoccupied.
A semicolon can also be used before a conjunctive adverb used to join the two clauses in a compound sentence.
The restaurant was very crowded; however, the waitress took our order immediately.
Parentheses (###) show related, nonessential elements
Parentheses can be used to show elements in a sentence that are related, yet not necessary to understand the meaning of the sentence. Parentheses can be replaced by commas in most cases, although the use of parentheses tends to de-emphasize a particular piece of information.
My family visited several countries (Italy, France, and Spain) on our vacation last year.
If the information inside the parentheses forms a complete sentence within the larger sentence, no punctuation is necessary.
The snow (April saw it when she passed the window) completely covered the trees.
Apostrophes(’s) Show Possession or Indicate an Omission
An apostrophe is used to indicate possession or ownership. An apostrophe and an -s should be added to singular possessive nouns, plural possessive nouns that do not end in -s, and singular possessive nouns that end in -s. Only an apostrophe should be used when showing possession or ownership for a plural possessive noun that ends in -s.
Singular possessive noun: Susan's book-Singular possessive noun ending in -s: Chris's car Plural possessive nouns: the children's school-Plural possessive noun that ends in -s: my parents' house
An apostrophe can also be used to show that a letter has been omitted from a word to form a contraction. For example, "it's" is a contraction for it is. "Its" is a possessive pronoun.
When to use commas
We use commas in two main ways:
1. Commas separate the items in a list.
Sometimes these items are real things.
E.g. I need some pens, pencils, paper and a calculator before I start my class.
I must buy some eggs, milk, sugar and tea.
Sometimes these items are things you do, or places you go.
E.g. Yesterday I went to work, played badminton, went to the pub and then went to bed.
I'm going to spend my holiday walking on the beach, sleeping in the sun and reading my book.
BEWARE!
Always make sure you use and to separate the last two items in your list.
Make sure that you don't use a comma before the word and at the end of your list.
Don't use commas where you should use a full-stop. If the words could stand alone as a proper sentence then you need to put a full-stop or a joining word ('and', 'but' etc) in and not a comma.
'Yesterday I went to work, I walked the dog, I went shopping and I washed the car.'
This doesn't work as these could all stand alone as proper short sentences. If you want to write them as a list (for example, to show you were in a hurry, or that you had a lot to do) take out the 'I'.
'Yesterday I went to work, walked the dog, went shopping and washed the car.'
2. Commas mark out the less important part of a sentence.
This is a useful way to make your sentences more interesting by adding extra information.
E.g. The car, which was parked by the light, had a dog in the back seat.
This sentence is about the car and the dog; it's not about where the car was parked.
Tony, his mum's favourite, was given chocolate cake for tea.
This sentence is about Tony eating chocolate cake. We don't need 'his mum's favourite' for the sentence to make sense, it's extra information.
Rajinda, the youngest in the family, is about to get married.
This sentence is about Rajinda getting married, it's not about her position in the family.
HOW CAN I CHECK?
A quick way to check this second use of commas is to see if the sentence makes sense without the words between the commas.
The first sentence -
'The car, which was parked by the light, had a dog in the back seat.'
would become
'The car ____ had a dog in the back seat.'
This sentence makes sense so the commas are in the right places.
Grammar refers to the rules regarding the current standard of correctness in speech and writing. Advances in word processing software have included grammar-checking features.
Using Commas: Do these sentences need commas?
1. My father went to the store for some dessert and bought ice cream.
No. Two verb phrases describing the action of the same subject does not need a comma if the conjunction separating them is "and."
My father went to the store for some dessert, bought ice cream, and came home in time to see his favourite TV show.
Yes. Three or more verb phrases describing the action of the same subject need commas to separate them.
Are commas necessary here?
The text “Who Built America?” describes reconstruction as a noble failure.
No. If Who Built America? was taken out of the sentence, when readers read "text," they would not know which text the writer means, so commas are not used when the title is in the sentence. (This is called a restrictive appositive.)
Practice using commas.
Insert commas where needed in the following sentences; then read the explanations below.
1. The restaurant dessert tray featured: carrot cake, coconut cream pie and something called death-by-chocolate.
2. Because I was three hours short of graduation requirements, I had to take a course during the summer.
3. The weather, according to last night's forecast, will improve by Saturday.
4. Students hurried to the campus store to buy their fall textbooks, but several of the books were already out of stock.
5. My sister asked, "Are you going to be on the phone much longer?"
1. The restaurant dessert tray featured carrot cake, coconut cream pie, and something called death-by-chocolate.
The comma separates the items in a series.
2. Because I was three hours short of graduation requirements, I had to take a course during the summer.
The comma separates an introductory phrase or dependent clause from the rest of the sentence.
3. The weather, according to last night's forecast, will improve by Saturday.
The phrase "according to last night's forecast" interrupts the main clause, so it is set off by commas.
4. Students hurried to the campus store to buy their fall textbooks, but several of the books were already out of stock.
The comma separates an independent clause from a dependent clause.
5. My sister asked, "Are you going to be on the phone much longer?"
The comma separates a direct quotation from the rest of the sentence.
Misplaced/dangling modifiers
A modifier is a word or group of words that describes another word and makes its meaning more specific. Often modifying phrases add information about "where", "when", or "how" something is done. A modifier works best when it is right next to the word it modifies. For example, consider the modifiers in the following sentence (they are underlined for you):
The awesome dude rode a wave breaking on the shore.
The word "awesome" is an adjective (or, a one-word modifier). It sits right next to the word "dude" it modifies.
The phrase "breaking on the shore" tells us where he rode the wave; thus, "breaking on the shore" is a modifying phrase that must be placed next to the "wave" it modifies.
Below are some examples of poorly placed modifiers. See if you can identify the problems:
1. Roger looked at twenty-five sofas shopping on Saturday.
Obviously twenty-five sofas were not shopping on Saturday. Because "shopping on Saturday" is meant to modify Roger, it should be right next to Roger, as follows:
Shopping on Saturday, Roger looked at twenty-five sofas.
2. The woman tore open the package she had just received with her fingernails.
Had the woman really received the package with her fingernails? The writer meant that she tore open the package with her fingernails.
With her fingernails, the woman tore open the package she had just received.
3. The waiter brought the pancakes to the table drenched in blueberry syrup.
What's drenched according to the sentence? The waiter, the table, or the pancakes? Actually, the pancakes were drenched:
The waiter brought the pancakes, drenched in blueberry syrup, to the table.
4. Lying in a heap on the closet floor, Jean found her son's dirty laundry.
It sounds as if Jean was lying on the closet floor when she found her son's laundry!
Jean found her son's dirty laundry lying in a heap on the closet floor.
Commas
What this handout is about
This handout offers seven easy steps to becoming a comma superhero.
Commas, commas, and more commas
Commas help your reader figure out which words go together in a sentence and which parts of your sentences are most important. Using commas incorrectly may confuse the reader, signal ignorance of writing rules, or indicate carelessness. Although using commas correctly may seem mysterious, it can be easy if you follow a few guidelines.
Beware of popular myths of comma usage:
• MYTH: Long sentences need a comma. A really long sentence may be perfectly correct without commas. The length of a sentence does not determine whether you need a comma.
• MYTH: You should add a comma wherever you pause. Where you pause or breathe in a sentence does not reliably indicate where a comma belongs. Different readers pause or breathe in different places.
• MYTH: Commas are so mysterious that it's impossible to figure out where they belong! Some rules are flexible, but most of the time, commas belong in very predictable places. You can learn to identify many of those places using the tips in this handout.
You probably already know at least one of the following guidelines and just have to practice the others. These guidelines are basically all you need to know; if you learn them once, you’re set for most situations.
1. Introductory bits (small-medium-large)
Setting off introductory words, phrases, or clauses with a comma lets the reader know that the main subject and main verb of the sentence come later. There are basically three kinds of introductory bits: small, medium, and large ones. No matter what size they are, an introductory bit cannot stand alone as a complete thought. It simply introduces the main subject and verb.
There are small (just one word) introductory bits:
Generally, extraterrestrials are friendly and helpful.
Moreover, some will knit booties for you if you ask nicely.
There are medium introductory bits. Often these are two- to four-word prepositional phrases or brief -ing and -ed phrases:
In fact, Godzilla is just a misunderstood teen lizard of giant proportions.
Throughout his early life, he felt a strong affinity with a playful dolphin named Flipper.
Frankly speaking, Godzilla wanted to play the same kinds of roles that Flipper was given.
Dissatisfied with destruction, he was hoping to frolick in the waves with his Hollywood friends.
There are large introductory bits (more than 4 words). You can often spot these by looking for key words/groups such as although, if, as, in order to, and when:
If you discover that you feel nauseated, then you know you’ve tried my Clam Surprise.
As far as I am concerned, it is the best dish for dispatching unwanted guests.
2. FANBOYS
FANBOYS is a handy mnemonic device for remembering the coordinating conjunctions: For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So. These words function as connectors. They can connect words, phrases, and clauses, like this:
Words: I am almost dressed and ready.
Phrases: My socks are in the living room or under my bed.
Clauses: They smell really bad, so they will be easy to find.
Notice the comma in the final example. You should always have a comma before FANBOYS that join two independent clauses (two subjects and two verbs that make up two complete thoughts). Look carefully at the next two sentences to see two independent clauses = two complete thoughts separated by comma + FANBOYS.
If you do not have two subjects and two verbs separated by the FANBOYS, you do not need to insert the comma before the FANBOYS. In other words, if the second grouping of words isn’t a complete thought, don’t use a comma. Try reading the words after FANBOYS all by themselves. Do they make a complete thought?
You can read your own writing in the same way. Read what comes after FANBOYS all by itself. If it's a complete thought, you need a comma. If not, you don't.
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3. The dreaded comma splice
If you don’t have FANBOYS between the two complete and separate thoughts, using a comma alone causes a "comma splice" or "fused sentence" (some instructors may call it a run-on). Some readers (especially professors) will think of this as a serious error.
BAD: My hamster loved to play, I gave him a hula-hoop.
ALSO BAD: You wore a lovely hat, it was your only defence.
To fix these comma splices, you can do one of four simple things: just add FANBOYS, change the comma to a semicolon, make each clause a separate sentence, or add a subordinator (a word like because, while, although, if, when, since, etc.)
GOOD: You wore a lovely hat, for it was your only defence.
ALSO GOOD: You wore a lovely hat; it was your only defence.
STILL GOOD: You wore a lovely hat. It was your only defence.
TOTALLY GOOD: You wore a lovely hat because it was your only defence.
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4. FANBOY fakers
However, therefore, moreover, and other words like them are not FANBOYS (they are called conjunctive adverbs). They go between two complete thoughts, just like FANBOYS, but they take different punctuation. Why? Who cares? You just need to recognize that they are not FANBOYS - For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So and you'll make the right choice.
When you want to use one of these words, you have two good choices. Check to see if you have a complete thought on both sides of the "conjunctive adverb." If you do, then you can use a period to make two sentences, or you can use a semicolon after the first complete thought. Either way, you'll use a comma after the faker in the second complete thought. Notice the subtle differences in punctuation here:
GOOD: Basketball is my favourite sport. However, table tennis is where I excel.
ALSO GOOD: Basketball is my favourite sport; however, table tennis is where I excel.
BAD: Basketball is my favourite sport, however table tennis is where I excel.
ALSO BAD: Basketball is my favourite sport, however, table tennis is where I excel.
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5. X,Y, and Z
Put commas between items in a list. When giving a short and simple list of things in a sentence, the last comma (right before the conjunction–usually and or or) is optional, but it is never wrong. If the items in the list are longer and more complicated, you should always place a final comma before the conjunction.
EITHER: You can buy life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness in Los Angeles.
OR: You can buy life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness in Los Angeles.
BUT ALWAYS: A good student listens to his teachers without yawning, reads once in a while, and writes papers before they are due.
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6. Describers
If you have two or more adjectives (words that describe) that are not joined by a conjunction (usually and) and both/all adjectives modify the same word, put a comma between them.
He was a bashful, dopey, sleepy dwarf.
The frothy, radiant princess kissed the putrid, vile frog.
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7. Interrupters
Two commas can be used to set off additional information that appears within the sentence but is separate from the primary subject and verb of the sentence. These commas help your reader figure out your main point by telling him or her that the words within the commas are not necessary to understand the rest of the sentence. In other words, you should be able to take out the section framed by commas and still have a complete and clear sentence.
Bob Mills, a sophomore from Raleigh, was the only North Carolina native at the Japanese food festival in Cary.
Aaron thought he could see the future, not the past, in the wrinkles on his skin.
My chemistry book, which weighs about 100 pounds, has some really great examples.
To see if you need commas around an interrupter, try taking the interrupter out of the sentence completely. If the sentence is still clear without the interrupter, then you probably need the commas.
The colon (:) is most often used to formally or emphatically introduce series, lists, appositives, and quotations. Generally, a colon implies a "promise," and what follows the colon "delivers on" that promise.
1. When extra emphasis or a degree of formality is desired, a colon can be employed to introduce a word, a phrase, or a clause used in apposition to a substantive (a noun or a noun substitute) in the introductory statement.
EXAMPLES
WORD
There is one thing a human being simply cannot do without: hope.
PHRASE
Her goal was easily stated: the state championship.
One factor cannot be ignored: the bottom line.
CLAUSE
There was only one question left to answer: who had sent her the first warning?
Don't overlook the most important rule: never argue with the boss.
2. A colon is frequently used after an introductory statement that clearly indicates that something--a list or an enumeration, for example--is to follow.
EXAMPLES
The children were asked to bring certain supplies the next day: crayons, scissors, glue, glitter, and ribbon.
A number of unexpected problems cropped up: the orders didn't go out on time, there was a breakdown in communication with the branch offices, and our top salesman was recruited by another company.
The major holidays for the upcoming academic year are as follows: Labor Day, Thanksgiving, Christmas, New Year's Day, and Memorial day.
3. If a quoted passage is formal, long, or paragraphed separately, a colon is used to separate the introductory statement from the quotation that follows.
EXAMPLE
John F. Kennedy issued this stirring challenge: "Ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country."
4. A colon is used after the salutation of a formal letter or a business letter. (A comma follows the salutation of a friendly letter or an informal letter.)
EXAMPLES
Dear Sir or Madam:
Gentlemen:
To the Selection Committee:
5. A colon is used to separate the title of a book or article from its subtitle.
"High Risk: Children Without a Conscience"
______
COMMON MISUSES OF THE COLON
1. Do not use a colon to separate a preposition from its objects.
WRONG
She was in charge of: registration, cabin assignments, and camp clean-up.
CORRECT
She was in charge of registration, cabin assignments, and camp clean-up.
2. Do not use a colon to separate a verb from its objects.
WRONG
I like to play: soccer, racquetball, and ice hockey.
CORRECT
I like to play soccer, racquetball, and ice hockey.
3. Do not use a colon after "such as."
WRONG
I enjoy playing physically demanding sports such as: soccer, racquetball, and ice hockey.
CORRECT
I enjoy playing physically demanding sports such as soccer, racquetball, and ice hockey.
4. After a word, phrase, or clause has been introduced by a colon, the sentence must end with the introduced element. (The main clause cannot be picked up again after the introduced element.)
WRONG
We were offered a choice of desserts: pudding, an assortment of pastries, and a fruit cocktail, but we were too stuffed to eat another bite.
CORRECT
We were offered a choice of desserts: pudding, an assortment of pastries, and a fruit cocktail. Unfortunately, we were too stuffed to eat another bite.
The Exclamation Mark
The exclamation mark (!), known informally as a bang or a shriek, is used at the end of a sentence or a short phrase which expresses very strong feeling. Here are some examples:
What a lovely view you have here!
That's fantastic!
Johnny, don't touch that!
Help!
Good heavens!
Aaarrgh!
Examples like these are quite normal in those kinds of writing that try to represent ordinary speech — for example, in novels. But exclamation marks are usually out of place in formal writing. Using them frequently will give your work a breathless, almost childish, quality.
An exclamation mark is also usual after an exclamation beginning with what or how:
What fools people can be!
How well Marshall bowled yesterday!
Note that such sentences are exclamations, and not statements. Compare them with statements:
People can be such fools.
Marshall bowled very well yesterday.
You can also use an exclamation mark to show that a statement is very surprising:
After months of careful work, the scientists finally opened the tomb. It was empty!
It is also permissible to use an exclamation mark to draw attention to an interruption:
On the (rare!) occasion when you use a Latin abbreviation, be sure to punctuate it properly.
Otherwise, you should generally avoid using exclamation marks in your formal writing. Don't write things like this:
*Do not use exclamation marks in formal writing!
*In 1848, gold was discovered in California!
Don't use an exclamation mark unless you're certain it's necessary — and never use two or three of them in a row:
*This is a sensational result!!!
This sort of thing is all right in personal letters, but it is completely out of place in formal writing.
Summary of exclamation marks:
• Don't use an exclamation mark unless it's absolutely necessary.
• Use an exclamation mark after an exclamation, especially after one beginning with what or how.
The Apostrophe
An apostrophe is a signal telling the reader that a word is either a possessive or a contraction.
1) To Form Contractions
As you know, a contraction is simply two words collapsed into one. You use contractions most often in informal or personal types of writing but usually not in more formal types. When you speak, you use contractions every day. Here are some common contractions:
cannot --> can’t
will not --> won’t
do not --> don’t
we are --> we’re
it is --> it’s
you are --> you’re
The apostrophe in the contractions above tells the reader that you have omitted a letter or two from the word—the letter o in three of the cases above. Undoubtedly, you have already mastered contractions, so we won’t go into detail. However, we will mention one common mistake. Remember that the apostrophe marks the missing letter. Don’t make the common mistake of placing the apostrophe between the two words, such as in these cases: should’nt, do’nt, etc.
2) To Form Possessives
The apostrophe is also used to mark the possessive. The possessive tells the reader that someone or something owns or possesses the thing that comes after the possessive. Here are five examples:
Ronni’s word processor
the banker’s log book
the bank’s holdings
the nation’s GNP
the year’s end
The possessive noun in each of the examples above (Ronni’s, banker’s, bank’s, nation’s, year’s) indicates to the reader that something is owned by something or someone else. In most cases, to make the possessive you simply add an ’s to the end of the noun. This is quite easy. The problem arises when a noun is both plural and possessive. Certainly, there can be more than one Ronni, and they both can own the word processor. Or more than one banker can own the log book. In such cases, you simply place the apostrophe after rather than before the s:
Ronnis’
bankers’
banks’
nations’
Some writers become confused when they must make a possessive of singular nouns that already end in s. As usual, you make the possessive by adding ’s to the word; however, some writers and editors argue that the two s’ are redundant and that therefore you can eliminate the second s, ending up with the s’. That is, they argue that there is really no need to include an s after the apostrophe, since the apostrophe already tells readers that the word is possessive. Others argue that you should drop the final s only on words of several syllables but retain it on short words. Since there is no agreement on this difficult problem, you must make your own choice. However, regardless of which option you choose, do remember to be consistent. Here are three nouns which already end in s and their corresponding possessive forms:
James James’s James’
Jones Jones’s Jones’
class class’ class’
Finally, the apostrophe is used in one other way. Although the apostrophe is never used to make a word plural, it is used to make letters and numerals plural:
Although I received C’s and D’s in many of my college classes, I always received A’s in my business classes.
My sister received straight A’s throughout her college career.
My score sheet showed that I had six 5’s and three 4’s.
Period Punctuation in Writing
PERIOD:
The use of the period as punctuation in writing.
The primary uses of the period are:
a) At the end of a sentence, when the sentence is a statement or instruction.
Example:
Please have those reports completed and on my desk by Friday.
b) After an abbreviation or after initials.
Examples:
Gov’t. etc. I.R.S. John W. Smith
c) It is acceptable to omit the period after an abbreviation that consists of the first and last letter of a word.
Examples:
Mr. or Mr
Dr. or Dr
d) When abbreviating, for example calendar months, titles, degrees, or days of the week, it should be remembered that only one space follows the period at the end of the abbreviation, and that no spaces follow the letters within the abbreviation.
Examples:
U.S.A. not U. S. A
Ph.D. not Ph. D.
e) If a sentence concludes with an abbreviation that ends with a period, a second period should NOT be used
Example:
This matter will now be referred to the I.R.S.
The Semicolon
You will usually use the semicolon to link independent clauses not joined by a co-ordinating conjunction. Semicolons should join only those independent clauses that are closely related in meaning.
Abdominal exercises help prevent back pain; proper posture is also important.
The auditors made six recommendations; however, only one has been adopted so far.
Do not use a semicolon to link a dependent clause or a phrase to an independent clause.
[WRONG] Although gaining and maintaining a high level of physical fitness takes a good deal of time; the effort pays off in the long run.
[RIGHT] Although gaining and maintaining a high level of physical fitness takes a good deal of time, the effort pays off in the long run.
Generally, you should not place a semicolon before a co-ordinating conjunction that links two independent clauses. The only exception to this guideline is if the two independent clauses are very long and already contain a number of commas.
[WRONG] The economy has been sluggish for four years now; but some signs of improvement are finally beginning to show.
[RIGHT] The economy has been sluggish for four years now, but some signs of improvement are finally beginning to show.
It may be useful to remember that, for the most part, you should use a semicolon only where you could also use a period.
There is one exception to this guideline. When punctuating a list or series of elements in which one or more of the elements contains an internal comma, you should use semicolons instead of commas to separate the elements from one another:
Henry's mother believes three things: that every situation, no matter how grim, will be happily resolved; that no one knows more about human nature than she; and that Henry, who is thirty-five years old, will never be able to do his own laundry.
I hope this helps.
Read your story out loud or get someone else to do so, you will "hear" where the punctuation should be or not.
